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Sustainable agricultural development is a key component of the rural revitalization strategy, and strengthening the guidance and support for sustainable agricultural development is an inevitable choice for improving agricultural production capacity and realizing rural revitalization. The study constructs an evaluation system of sustainable agricultural development based on four dimensions: economic opportunity, social well-being, environmental quality, and climate action, selects relevant index data of each province from 2004 to 2022, and adopts a multi-level factor analysis method to comprehensively evaluate the sustainable agricultural development as well as the dynamic distribution of 31 provinces in China. The results show that Henan leads other provinces in economic opportunities with a score of 1.21, and Hebei ranks first in social well-being with abundant human resources and policy support. In the level of regional sustainable agricultural development, there is an uneven distribution pattern of “North > Central > South”. From the dynamic distribution of agricultural sustainable development in 31 provinces from 2004 to 2022, it is concluded that the development trend of agricultural sustainable development in China is better, and the gap between provinces has been narrowed. Finally, policy recommendations are put forward based on the situation of agricultural sustainable development to provide reference for the subsequent work on agricultural sustainable development.